Visually, the interior of the brain consists of areas of so-called grey matter, with a dark color, separated by areas of white matter, with a lighter color. He used microscopy to uncover many cell types, and proposed functions for the cells he saw. In 1971 Tim Bliss and Terje Lømo published a paper on a phenomenon now called long-term potentiation: the paper showed clear evidence of activity-induced synaptic changes that lasted for at least several days. A group of about 10 molecules, and more than 50 neuroactive proteins form the neurotransmitters. Early philosophers were divided as to whether the seat of the soul lies in the brain or heart. [45][46] Mast cells serve the same general functions in the body and central nervous system, such as effecting or regulating allergic responses, innate and adaptive immunity, autoimmunity, and inflammation. Among other tools, they employ a plethora of stains that reveal neural structure, chemistry, and connectivity. [224] Anatomist physician Galen in the second century AD, during the time of the Roman Empire, dissected the brains of sheep, monkeys, dogs, and pigs. The chemicals are programmed to process any incoming information and creating a corresponding response. They travel sideways along the sphenoid bone of the eye socket, then upwards through the insula cortex, where final branches arise. Some neurons emit action potentials constantly, at rates of 10–100 per second, usually in irregular patterns; other neurons are quiet most of the time, but occasionally emit a burst of action potentials. He concluded that, as the cerebellum was denser than the brain, it must control the muscles, while as the cerebrum was soft, it must be where the senses were processed. It also has a bearing on brain processes which control emotional response, movement and the body’s ability to experience pain and pleasure. The whole circuitry is driven by the process of neurotransmission. [179] Seizure activity can manifest as absence of consciousness, focal effects such as limb movement or impediments of speech, or be generalized in nature. [49], Size, however, is not the only difference: there are also substantial differences in shape. [229][230][231] The seventh book covered the brain and eye, with detailed images of the ventricles, cranial nerves, pituitary gland, meninges, structures of the eye, the vascular supply to the brain and spinal cord, and an image of the peripheral nerves. [169], Other related studies have also shown evidence of synaptic alterations and their loss, in the ageing brain. Any cookies that may not be particularly necessary for the website to function and is used specifically to collect user personal data via analytics, ads, other embedded contents are termed as non-necessary cookies. [17], The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain, and is divided into nearly symmetrical left and right hemispheres by a deep groove, the longitudinal fissure. [37] These distortions can make it difficult to match brain components from one species with those of another species.[38]. [84] Impulses generated from the motor cortex travel along the corticospinal tract along the front of the medulla and cross over (decussate) at the medullary pyramids. [224] Also in the fifth century BC in Athens, the unknown author of On the Sacred Disease, a medical treatise which is part of the Hippocratic Corpus and traditionally attributed to Hippocrates, believed the brain to be the seat of intelligence. Nerves send these signals throughout the body. [176] Cancers within the brain may cause symptoms related to their size or position, with symptoms including headache and nausea, or the gradual development of focal symptoms such as gradual difficulty seeing, swallowing, talking, or as a change of mood. The pathway fibers travel up the spinal cord and connect with second-order neurons in the reticular formation of the brainstem for pain and temperature, and also terminate at the ventrobasal complex of the thalamas for gross touch. Dendrites are often extensive branches that receive information in the form of signals from the axon terminals of other neurons. The living brain is very soft, having a gel-like consistency similar to soft tofu. [9] These axons transmit signals in the form of electrochemical pulses called action potentials, which last less than a thousandth of a second and travel along the axon at speeds of 1–100 meters per second. Some of these functions relate to arousal or to social interactions such as sexuality, aggression, or maternal behaviors; but many of them relate to homeostasis. [119] The unknown author of On the Sacred Disease, a medical treatise in the Hippocratic Corpus, came down unequivocally in favor of the brain, writing: Men ought to know that from nothing else but the brain come joys, delights, laughter and sports, and sorrows, griefs, despondency, and lamentations. In funerary rituals, those close to the dead would eat the brain of the deceased to create a sense of immortality. A prion disease called kuru has been traced to this. [4] Some types of worms, such as leeches, also have an enlarged ganglion at the back end of the nerve cord, known as a "tail brain".[17]. Some basic types of responsiveness such as reflexes can be mediated by the spinal cord or peripheral ganglia, but sophisticated purposeful control of behavior based on complex sensory input requires the information integrating capabilities of a centralized brain. Research has shown that the neurotransmitter dopamine plays a central role: addictive drugs such as cocaine, amphetamine, and nicotine either cause dopamine levels to rise or cause the effects of dopamine inside the brain to be enhanced. [96], Most organisms studied to date utilize a reward–punishment mechanism: for instance, worms and insects can alter their behavior to seek food sources or to avoid dangers. [115], Computational neuroscience encompasses two approaches: first, the use of computers to study the brain; second, the study of how brains perform computation. Characteristic of Vertebrates and Its Form. [228] This dualism likely provided impetus for later anatomists to further explore the relationship between the anatomical and functional aspects of brain anatomy. [77][79], The first groove to appear in the fourth month is the lateral cerebral fossa. [8], Motor systems are areas of the brain that are involved in initiating body movements, that is, in activating muscles. [32], Brains are most simply compared in terms of their size. The philosophy of the mind studies such issues as the problem of understanding consciousness and the mind–body problem. In a person with epilepsy, risk factors for further seizures may include sleeplessness, drug and alcohol intake, and stress. The medical history of people with brain injury has provided insight into the function of each part of the brain.
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